Chemistry:Water landing

From HandWiki
Short description: An aircraft landing intentionally on a body of water
A Twin Otter float plane completing a water landing

In aviation, a water landing is, in the broadest sense, an aircraft landing on a body of water. Seaplanes, such as floatplanes and flying boats, land on water as a normal operation. Ditching is a controlled emergency landing on the water surface in an aircraft not designed for the purpose, a very rare occurrence.[1] Controlled flight into the surface and uncontrolled flight ending in a body of water (including a runway excursion into water) are generally not considered water landings or ditching.[2]

Aircraft water landings

By design

The Apollo 15 capsule descends under two of three parachutes.

Seaplanes, flying boats, and amphibious aircraft are designed to take off and alight on water. Alighting can be supported by a hull-shaped fuselage and/or pontoons. The availability of a long effective runway was historically important on lifting size restrictions on aircraft, and their freedom from constructed strips remains useful for transportation to lakes and other remote areas. The ability to loiter on water is also important for marine rescue operations and fire fighting. One disadvantage of water alighting is that it is dangerous in the presence of waves. Furthermore, the necessary equipment compromises the craft's aerodynamic efficiency and speed.[citation needed]

Early crewed spacecraft launched by the United States were designed to alight on water by the splashdown method. The craft would parachute into the water, which acted as a cushion to bring the craft to a stop; the impacts were violent but survivable. Alighting over water rather than land made braking rockets unnecessary, but its disadvantages included difficult retrieval and the danger of drowning. The NASA Space Shuttle design was intended to land on a runway instead. Since 2020 the SpaceX Dragon has used water landings. The Boeing CST-100 is designed to do likewise.[citation needed]

In distress

US Airways Flight 1549 ditched on the Hudson River in 2009 with all passengers surviving.
Ditching button on the overhead panel of an Airbus A330

While ditching is extremely uncommon in commercial passenger travel, small aircraft tend to ditch slightly more often because they usually have only one engine and their systems have fewer redundancies. According to the National Transportation Safety Board, there are about a dozen ditchings per year.[3]

General aviation

General aviation includes all fields of aviation outside of military or scheduled (commercial) flights. This classification includes small aircraft, e.g., training aircraft, airships, gliders, helicopters, and corporate aircraft, including business jets and other for-hire operations. General aviation has the highest accident and incident rate in aviation, with 16 deaths per million flight hours, compared to 0.74 deaths per million flight hours for commercial flights (North America and Europe).[citation needed]

Commercial aircraft

The FAA does not require commercial pilots to train to ditch but airline cabin personnel must train on the evacuation process.[4] In addition, the FAA implemented rules under which circumstances (kind of operator, number of passengers, weight, route) an aircraft has to carry emergency equipment including floating devices such as life jackets and life rafts.

Some aircraft are designed with the possibility of a water landing in mind. Airbus aircraft, for example, feature a "ditching button" which, if pressed, closes valves and openings underneath the aircraft, including the outflow valve, the air inlet for the emergency RAT, the avionics inlet, the extract valve, and the flow control valve. It is meant to slow flooding in a water landing.[5]

Airplane water ditchings

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
Date Aircraft Occupants Fatalities Details
13 January 1923 Aeromarine 75 9 4 13 January 1923: An Aeromarine Airways Aeromarine 75 had to ditch into the Atlantic Ocean when the flying boat suffered engine issues. 5 of the 9 people on board survived.[6]
21 October 1926 Handley Page W.10 12 0 21 October 1926: An Imperial Airways Handley Page W.10 (G-EBMS) ditched into the English Channel after suffering an engine failure. All 12 people on board survived.[7]
17 June 1929 Handley Page W.10 13 7 17 June 1929: An Imperial Airways Handley Page W.10 (G-EBMT) ditched into the English Channel after suffering an engine failure. 6 of the 13 people on board the plane survived.[8]
21 January 1939 Short S.23 Empire 13 3 21 January 1939: An Imperial Airways Short S.23 Empire (G-ADUU) ditched into the Atlantic Ocean after suffering a loss of power to its engines. 10 of the 13 people on board survived.[9]
10 February 1945 Douglas C-47 12 0 10 February 1945: A lost United States Air Force Douglas C-47 was attempting to make an emergency landing at a nearby airfield since it was running on low fuel. Unbeknownst to the crew, they were heading towards a Japanese airfield. A P-51, piloted by Louis Edward Curdes, conducting an air attack over the Japanese airfield spotted the C-47. He was unable to contact the crew of the C-47 as the radio on the C-47 stopped working, so he shot down both engines of the C-47 to prevent the occupants of the C-47 to be captured by the Japanese upon landing at the airfield. The C-47 was then forced to ditch into the sea. All 12 people on board survived and were eventually rescued.[10][11]
11 April 1952 Douglas DC-4 69 52 Template:Timeline event[12]
16 April 1952 de Havilland Australia DHA-3 Drover 3 0 Template:Timeline event
3 August 1953 Lockheed L-749A Constellation 42 4 Template:Timeline event
19 June 1954 Convair CV-240 HB-IRW 9 3 Template:Timeline event[13]
23 July 1954 Douglas C-54A-10-DC Skymaster 18 10 23 July 1954: Cathay Pacific VR-HEU ditched into the South China Sea after being shot by two Lavochkin La-11 fighters of the 85th Fighter Regiment, People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF). While ten passengers and crew were killed by bullets and the subsequent ditching, eight others survived and escaped from the sinking plane, including both pilots.[14]
26 March 1955 Boeing 377 Stratocruiser 23 4 Template:Timeline event[15]
2 April 1956 Boeing 377 38 5 Template:Timeline event[16][17]
16 October 1956 Boeing 377 31 0 Template:Timeline event
14 July 1960 DC-7C 57 1 14 July 1960: Northwest Airlines Flight 1-11 (A DC-7C) with 7 crew and 51 passengers made a successful ditching in shark-infested waters at 4:05am, 11 miles from Magdalo barrio, Polillo Island about 80 miles from Manila, Philippines. Capt. David Hall was forced to make an emergency water landing after a fire broke out in the no.2 engine when it did not feather followed by its propeller spinning off. In darkness and rough seas, the crew were able to evacuate all passengers and eventually get them aboard the life rafts as the aircraft sank nose first into the Pacific Ocean. There was only 1 loss of life caused by a heart attack. The 57 passengers and crew were rescued five hours later by Coast Guard Grumman amphibian and a US Navy PBM from Sangley Point Naval Base in Cavite, Philippines.[18][19]
22 October 1962 DC-7C 58 0 Template:Timeline event
23 September 1962 Lockheed 1049H-82 Super Constellation 76 28 Template:Timeline event
21 August 1963 Tupolev Tu-124 52 0 Template:Timeline event
23 April 1966 Ilyushin Il-14 33 33 23 April 1966: Aeroflot Flight 2723 (an Ilyushin Il-14 registered as CCCP-61772) suffered a dual-engine failure several minutes after taking off from Bina International Airport. The pilots were unable to return back to Bina and ended up ditching into the Caspian Sea. The wreckage and occupants were not found until a few months later. All 33 people on board died.[20]
2 May 1970 McDonnell Douglas DC-9-33CF 63 23
17 July 1972 Tupolev Tu-134 5 0 17 July 1972: A GosNIIAS Tupolev Tu-134 (CCCP-65607)[ru] was conducting a test flight when both of its engines shut down and the crew were unable to restart the engines. The plane was low on altitude and had to ditch on the Ikshinskoye reservoir. All 5 people on board survived with no injuries.[21]
11 September 1990 Boeing 727 16 16 (presumed) 11 September 1990: A Faucett Perú Boeing 727 (OB-1303) was running out of fuel and the pilots sent a out a distress message that was picked up by TWA Flight 851 and American Airlines Flight 35, stating that they were preparing to ditch into the Atlantic Ocean. Nothing else was ever heard from the pilots again and the wreckage and occupants were never found.[22][23] Officials from the Transportation Safety Board of Canada (TSB) believed the plane had in fact ditched into the Atlantic Ocean.[24]
24 April 1994 Douglas DC-3 25 0 24 April 1994: A DC-3 (VH-EDC), operated by South Pacific Airmotive, suffered a failure of the left engine at approximately 200 ft (61 m) after taking off from Sydney Airport (Australia) . The power of the right engine was insufficient to climb or maintain height, so the pilot carried out a successful ditching. All 25 on board survived with only one minor physical injury.[25][26]
23 November 1996 Boeing 767-260ER 175 125 Template:Timeline event[27]
29 July 1998 Embraer EMB-110P1 Bandeirante 27 12 29 July 1998: A Selva Taxi Aéreo Embraer EMB-110P1 Bandeirante (PT-LGN)[de] had an oil pressure issue on the number 2 engine twenty minutes after taking off from Manaus-Eduardo Gomes International Airport and had to be shut down later on. Due to this, the crew decided to turn back to Manaus. The plane could not maintain flight with only one engine since the plane was severely overweight and thus unable to reach Manaus, so the plane had to ditch on the Manacapuru River. 12 out of the 27 people on board the plane were killed.[28]
13 January 2000 Short 360 41 22 13 January 2000: An Avisto Short 360 (HB-AAM) suffered a dual-engine failure after the melting of ice accumulated in both engines. The plane ditched into the Mediterranean Sea, 5km off Marsa Brega Airport. Out of the 41 people on board, 19 had survived, 21 were killed and 1 was missing and is presumed dead.[29]
31 May 2000 Piper PA-31 8 8 Template:Timeline event
27 February 2001 Shorts 360-100 2 2 27 February 2001: Loganair Flight 670A, a Shorts 360-100, took off from Edinburgh Airport, United Kingdom. Shortly thereafter, the plane suffered a dual engine failure from an accumulation of large volumes of snow or slush in both engines and ditched in the Firth of Forth. Both pilots, who were the only people on board, were killed.[30]
16 January 2002 Boeing 737 60 1 Template:Timeline event
11 November 2002 Fokker F27 Friendship 34 19 Template:Timeline event[31]
6 August 2005 ATR 72 39 16 Template:Timeline event[32]
15 January 2009 Airbus A320 155 0 Template:Timeline event
22 October 2009 Britten-Norman Islander 10 1 Template:Timeline event
18 November 2009 Westwind II 6 0 18 November 2009: A Pel-Air West conducting an air ambulance flight using a Westwind II (VH-NGA) ditched into the sea 3km south-west of Norfolk Island due to the flight crew being unable to land at Norfolk Island in poor weather conditions and not having enough fuel to divert to another airport. All 6 people on board survived.[33]
6 June 2011 Antonov An-26 3 0 Template:Timeline event
11 July 2011 Antonov An-24 37 7 Template:Timeline event[34]
11 December 2013 Cessna 208B Grand Caravan 9 1 11 December 2013: A Makani Kai Air Cessna 208B Grand Caravan (N687MA) ditched shortly after takeoff from Kalaupapa Airport, Hawaii due to engine failure. The plane sustained substantial damage from the impact. Of the 9 people on board, one passenger was fatally injured, the pilot and two passengers were seriously injured, and five passengers received minor injuries.[35]
21 June 2019 Basler BT-67 2 0 21 June 2019: A North Star Air Basler BT-67 (C-FKGL) lost power to both engines after the pilot in the left seat, who was not flying the plane, accidentally moved the fuel condition levers while retracting the landing gear. The plane, flying in pitch-black conditions, had to ditch into Eabamet Lake, Ontario. Both pilots evacuated the plane without injuries.[36]
2 July 2021 Boeing 737 2 0 2 July 2021: On Transair Flight 810, one engine on the Boeing 737-200 cargo aircraft failed en route from Honolulu to the neighboring Hawaiian island of Maui. The crew attempted to turn back to Honolulu's Daniel K. Inouye International Airport, but the plane's second engine overheated, forcing the two pilots on board to ditch the airplane about 4 miles (6.4 km) off the southern coast of Oahu. Both pilots were rescued by the United States Coast Guard.[37]

Aircraft landing on water for other reasons

Passengers and crew being rescued by boats after Air Niugini Flight 73 landed in Chuuk Lagoon on 28 September 2018

Aircraft also sometimes end up in water by running off the ends of runways, landing in water short of the end of a runway, or even being forcibly flown into the water during suicidal/homicidal events. Twice at LaGuardia Airport, an aircraft have rolled into the East River (USAir Flight 5050 and USAir Flight 405).

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

Military aircraft

A limited number of pre-World War II military aircraft, such as the Grumman F4F Wildcat and Douglas TBD Devastator, were equipped with flotation bags that kept them on the surface in the event of a ditching.[51][52]

The "water bird" emergency landing is a technique developed by the Canadian Forces to safely land the Sikorsky CH-124 Sea King helicopter if one engine fails while flying over water. The emergency landing technique allows the boat-hull equipped aircraft to land on the water in a controlled fashion.[53]

Space launch vehicle water landings

Beginning in 2013 and continuing into 2014 and 2015, a series of ocean water landing tests were undertaken by SpaceX as a prelude to bringing booster rockets back to the launch pad in an effort to reuse launch vehicle booster stages.[54] Seven test flights with controlled-descents have been conducted by April 2015.[55]

Prior to 2013, successful water landings of launch vehicles were not attempted, while periodic water landings of space capsules have been accomplished since 1961. The vast majority of space launch vehicles take off vertically and are destroyed on falling back to earth. Exceptions include suborbital vertical-landing vehicles (e.g., Masten Xoie or the Armadillo Aerospace' Lunar Lander Challenge vehicle), and the spaceplanes that use the vertical takeoff, horizontal landing (VTHL) approach (e.g., the Space Shuttle, or the USAF X-37) which have landing gear to enable runway landings.[56] Each vertical-takeoff spaceflight system to date has relied on expendable boosters to begin each ascent to orbital velocity. This is beginning to change.

Recent advances in private space transport, where new competition to governmental space initiatives has emerged, have included the explicit design of recoverable rocket technologies into orbital booster rockets. SpaceX has initiated and funded a multimillion-dollar program to pursue this objective, known as the reusable launch system development program.[57][58][59]

The orbital-flight version of the SpaceX design[60] was first successful at accomplishing a water landing (zero velocity and zero altitude) in April 2014 on a Falcon 9 rocket and was the first successful controlled ocean soft touchdown of a liquid-rocket-engine orbital booster.[61][62] Seven test flights with controlled-descent test over-water landings, including two with failed attempts to land on a floating landing platform, have been conducted by April 2015.[55]

References

  1. ↑ National Transportation Safety Board (December 1998). "NTSB Aviation Coding Manual". https://www.ntsb.gov/aviation/codman.htm. 
  2. ↑ "Jet Airliner Ditching Events". http://www.airsafe.com/events/ditch.htm. 
  3. ↑ Bertorelli, Paul (1999). "Ditching Myths Torpedoed!". http://www.equipped.com/ditchingmyths.htm. 
  4. ↑ CFR 14 Part 121 Appendix D – Criteria for Demonstration of Emergency Evacuation Procedures Under §121.291
  5. ↑ "Airbus Overhead Panel". Data. smartcockpit.com. http://www.smartcockpit.com/data/pdfs/plane/airbus/a340/instructor/A330-A340_Overhead_Pushbuttons.pdf. 
  6. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Aeromarine 75 registration unknown Havana, Cuba". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19230113-0. 
  7. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Handley Page W.10 G-EBMS English Channel". https://www.asndata.aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19261021-0. 
  8. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Handley Page W.10 G-EBMT Dungeness". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19290617-0. 
  9. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Short S.23 Empire Flying Boat Mk II G-ADUU Port Washington, Long Island, NY". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19390121-0. 
  10. ↑ "The American WWII Ace Who Shot Down 7 German, 1 Italian, 1 Japanese, And 1 American Plane" (in en). 2016-08-23. https://www.warhistoryonline.com/world-war-ii/american-wwii-ace-shot-7-german-1-italian-1-japanese-1-american-plane.html. 
  11. ↑ Staff, Rich Buhler & (28 June 2016). "Bad Angel Pilot Lt. Louis E. Curdes Shot Down His Girlfriend in WWII-Truth! & Fiction! - Truth or Fiction?" (in en-us). https://www.truthorfiction.com/bad-angel-pilot-lt-louis-e-curdes-shot-girlfriend-wwii/. 
  12. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Douglas DC-4 N88899 San Juan-Isla Grande Airport (SIG)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19520411-0. 
  13. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Convair CV-240-4 HB-IRW Folkestone". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19540619-0. 
  14. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Douglas C-54A-10-DC (DC-4) VR-HEU Hainan Island". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19540723-0. 
  15. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 377 Stratocruiser 10-26 N1032V Oregon, USA". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19550326-0. 
  16. ↑ Aircraft Accident Report on Northwest Orient Airlines Flight 2 from the Department of Transport's Special Collections
  17. ↑ Air Disaster, Vol. 4: The Propeller Era, by Macarthur Job, Aerospace Publications Pty. Ltd. (Australia), 2001 ISBN:1-875671-48-X
  18. ↑ Makar, A. B.; McMartin, K. E.; Palese, M.; Tephly, T. R. (1975). "2 Airliners Crash; 87 Rescued, 1 Killed". Manila Bulletin 183 (13): 117–26. doi:10.1016/0006-2944(75)90147-7. ISSN 0006-2944. PMID 1. 
  19. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "Crash-aerien 14 JUL 1960 d'un Douglas DC-7C N292 - Polillo Island" (in fr). https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19600714-0. 
  20. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Ilyushin Il-14 CCCP-61772 Boyuk Zira". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19660423-1. 
  21. ↑ "Вынужденная посадка Ту-134 ГосИИИ ГА на Икшинское водохранилище (борт СССР-65607), 17 июля 1972 года. // AirDisaster.ru - авиационные происшествия, инциденты и авиакатастрофы в СССР и России - факты, история, статистика". http://www.airdisaster.ru/database.php?id=536. 
  22. ↑ "Tuesday 11 September 1990". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19900911-0. 
  23. ↑ Claiborne, Harro (12 September 1990). "Peruvian Airliner Lost in Atlantic off Canada". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1990/09/12/peruvian-airliner-lost-in-atlantic-off-canada/df4b9e17-fcaf-4de3-a1d8-f5173446eb4d/. 
  24. ↑ "Boeing 727 ditches in Atlantic" (in en). https://www.upi.com/Archives/1990/09/11/Boeing-727-ditches-in-Atlantic/5159653025600/. 
  25. ↑ "Investigation: 199401043 - Douglas Aircraft Co Inc DC3C-S1C3G, VH-EDC, Botany Bay, NSW, 24 April 1994". https://www.atsb.gov.au/publications/investigation_reports/1994/AAIR/aair199401043.aspx. 
  26. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Douglas C-47A-20-DK (DC-3) VH-EDC Sydney-Kingsford Smith International Airport, NSW (SYD)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19940424-0. 
  27. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 767-260ER ET-AIZ Mitsamiouli, Grande Comore". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19961123-0. 
  28. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Embraer EMB-110P1 Bandeirante PT-LGN Manaus, AM". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19980729-0. 
  29. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Shorts 360-300 HB-AAM Marsa el-Brega". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20000113-0. 
  30. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Shorts 360-100 G-BNMT Granton Harbour". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20010227-0. 
  31. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Fokker F-27 Friendship 600 RP-C6888 Manila-Ninoy Aquino International Airport (MNL) [Manila Bay"]. https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20021111-0. 
  32. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident ATR 72-202 TS-LBB Palermo-Punta Raisi Airport (PMO)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20050806-0. 
  33. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident IAI 1124A Westwind II VH-NGA Norfolk Island Airport (NLK)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20091118-0. 
  34. ↑ "Accident: Angara AN24 near Nizhnevartovsk on Jul 11th 2011, water landing after engine fire". https://avherald.com/h?article=43f853ce&opt=1. 
  35. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Cessna 208B Grand Caravan N687MA Kalaupapa Airport, HI (LUP)". https://www.aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20131211-0. 
  36. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Basler BT-67 Turbo 67 (DC-3T) C-FKGL Fort Hope Airport, ON (YFH)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20190621-0. 
  37. ↑ Shapiro, Emily; Stone, Alex (July 2, 2021). "2 pilots alive after plane crashes few miles off coast of Hawaii" (in en). ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/pilots-alive-plane-crashes-miles-off-coast-hawaii/story?id=78604621. 
  38. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Lockheed L-1049C-55-81 Super Constellation PH-LKY Shannon Airport (SNN)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19540905-0. 
  39. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-8-62 JA8032 San Francisco Bay, CA". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19681122-0. 
  40. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-8-62 LN-MOO Los Angeles, CA [Santa Monica Bay"]. https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19690113-0. 
  41. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Tupolev Tu-154B-1 YR-TPH Nouadhibou Airport (NDB)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19800807-1. 
  42. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-222 N62AF Washington-National Airport, DC (DCA) [Potomac River"]. https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19820113-0. 
  43. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30 LN-RKB New York-John F. Kennedy International Airport, NY (JFK)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19840228-0. 
  44. ↑ "Airliner Plunges Into Swamp" (in en-US). 1985-06-27. https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-06-27-mn-10718-story.html. 
  45. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 N129AA San Juan-Luis Munoz Marin International Airport (SJU)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19850627-0. 
  46. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Hawker Siddeley HS-121 Trident 2E B-2218 Hong Kong-Kai Tak International Airport (HKG)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19880831-1. 
  47. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-287 LV-LIU Ushuaia Airport, TF (USH)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19880926-0. 
  48. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30F N800WR Entebbe Airport (EBB)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20000430-0. 
  49. ↑ Ranter, Harro. "ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-81Q (WL) N732MA Jacksonville Naval Air Station, FL (NIP)". https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20190503-0. 
  50. ↑ Zaveri, Mihir; Kramer, Margaret (2019-05-04). "Boeing 737 Skids Into St. Johns River in Jacksonville" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/03/us/jacksonville-plane-river.html. 
  51. ↑ Doyle, David (2017). Grumman F4F Wildcat. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing. p. 7. ISBN 9780764354335. 
  52. ↑ Kernan, Alvin (2005). The Unknown Battle of Midway: The Destruction of the American Torpedo Squadrons. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-300-10989-X. 
  53. ↑ Prince performs 'waterbird' landing, but what is it?
  54. ↑ Boyle, Alan (18 April 2014). "Cargo Launch and Rocket Test Add Up to 'Happy Day' for SpaceX". NBC News. http://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/cargo-launch-rocket-test-add-happy-day-spacex-n84266. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Bergin, Chris (3 April 2015). "SpaceX preparing for a busy season of missions and test milestones". NASASpaceFlight.com. http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/04/spacex-preparing-busy-season-missions-test-milestones/. 
  56. ↑ Hanlon, Michael (11 June 2013). "Roll up for the Red Planet". The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/science/10112069/Roll-up-for-the-Red-Planet.html. "the space race is flaring back into life, and it's not massive institutions such as NASA that are in the running. The old view that human space flight is so complex, difficult and expensive that only huge government agencies could hope to accomplish it is being disproved by a new breed of flamboyant space privateers, who are planning to send humans out beyond the Earth's orbit for the first time since 1972." 
  57. ↑ Foust, Jeff (18 October 2013). "SpaceX wrapping up Falcon 9 second stage investigation as it moves on from Grasshopper". NewSpace Journal. http://www.newspacejournal.com/2013/10/18/spacex-wrapping-up-falcon-9-second-stage-investigation-as-it-moves-on-from-grasshopper/. 
  58. ↑ Klotz, Irene (17 October 2013). "SpaceX Retires Grasshopper, New Test Rig To Fly in December". Space News. http://www.spacenews.com/article/launch-report/37740spacex-retires-grasshopper-new-test-rig-to-fly-in-december. 
  59. ↑ Leone, Dan (13 May 2013). "SpaceX Leases Pad in New Mexico for Next Grasshopper Tests". SpaceNews. http://www.spacenews.com/article/launch-report/35306spacex-leases-pad-in-new-mexico-for-next-grasshopper-tests#.Uf0JMtLOvgQ. 
  60. ↑ "Landing Legs". SpaceX News. 12 April 2013. http://www.spacex.com/news/2013/04/12/falcon-heavy-landing-legs. "The Falcon Heavy first stage center core and boosters each carry landing legs, which will land each core safely on Earth after takeoff. After the side boosters separate, the center engine in each will burn to control the booster's trajectory safely away from the rocket. The legs will then deploy as the boosters turn back to Earth, landing each softly on the ground. The center core will continue to fire until stage separation, after which its legs will deploy and land it back on Earth as well. The landing legs are made of state-of-the-art carbon fiber with aluminum honeycomb. The four legs stow along the sides of each core during liftoff and later extend outward and down for landing." 
  61. ↑ Belfiore, Michael (22 April 2014). "SpaceX Brings a Booster Safely Back to Earth". MIT Technology Review. http://www.technologyreview.com/news/526806/spacex-brings-a-booster-safely-back-to-earth/. 
  62. ↑ Norris, Guy (28 April 2014). "SpaceX Plans For Multiple Reusable Booster Tests". Aviation Week. http://aviationweek.com/space/spacex-plans-multiple-reusable-booster-tests. 

Further reading

External video
Ditching of a B-24D into the James River in 1944 – Flight
Ditching of a B-24D into the James River in 1944 – Preparations
Ditching Procedures for a C-54



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